The Making of the Chalcedonian Definition
1. From Nestorius to Chalcedon
i. The Campaign against Nestorius
428, Nestorius was appointed to the see of Constantinople.
He preached a distinctly Antiochene christology and raised doubts
about the suitability of the title "Theotokos," "God-bearer,"
for the Virgin Mary.
Cyril of Alexandria began a campaign against Nestorius: sending
two letters, the first to his suffragans, the second, a little
over a year later, to Nestorius himself. The first criticized
Nestorius' teaching, the second outlined the Alexandrian account
of Christ. Cyril also sought, through his agents in Constantinople
to undermine Nestorius' reputation and to poison the attitude
of the Emperor and his wife Eudokia. Cyril found an ally in Theodosius'
powerful sister, Pulcheria. Cyril secured the support of Pope
Celestine. November 430, Cyril sent Nestorius a formal letter
from the Pope demanding recantation and also a letter from himself
demanding Nestorius' assent to twelve "anathemas." Cyril's
"Twelve Anathemas" condemned Antiochene christology,
as Cyril understood it.
Hypatia (c.375-415), Neoplatonist philosopher and mathematician. She was the outstanding thinker of the Neoplatonic school of Alexandria. Murdered by a Christian mob inflamed by the allegation that she had incited the pagan prefect of Alexandria against the Christians. Cyril of Alexandria was suspected of complicity in her murder but this has never been proved.
Nestorius (c.351-c.451), patriarch of Constantinople. Native of Syria Euphratensis, Nestorius entered a monastery in Antioch and probably studied under Theodore of Mopsuestia. Theodosius II called Nestorius to the patriachate of Constantinople on the strength of Nestorius' reputation as a very fine preacher. Nestorius entered energetically into the task of opposing heresy and paganism. His support for the views of his chaplain Anastasius, who questioned the title "Theotokos" for the Virgin Mary, precipitated bitter dispute, alienated popular piety, and brought him into conflict with Cyril of Alexandria. Nestorius was deposed by the Council of Ephesus in June 431. His books were condemned by imperial decree in 425 and Nestorius was banished to Upper Egypt in 436. Until the C20th his theology was known mostly from fragments of letters and sermons. In 1895, a treatise, the Bazaar of Heracleides, was discovered. Nestorius composed this late in his life and it has stimulated a reassessment of his christology, challenging the patristic identification of his views with an extreme "di-physite" position.
Theodosius II (401-50), Roman emperor from 408. Founded the University of Constantinople (425), summoned the Council of Ephesus (431), and enacted the body of laws known as the "Theodosian Code" (438). His religious policies were inconsistent owing to the successive individuals - sister, wife, court eunuch - who dominated his life.
Cyril of Alexandria (d.444), patriarch of Alexandria. For biographical details, see narratives above and below.
ii. What Did Nestorius Teach?
"I hold the natures apart but unite the worship."
"Christ is indivisible in his being Christ, but he is twofold in his being God and man. We know not two Christs or two Sons or Only-begottens or Lord, not one and another Son, not a first and a second Christ, but one and the same, who is seen in His created and uncreated natures."
"God the Word and the man in whom He came to be are not numerically two; for the Person of both was one in dignity and honor, worshipped by all creation, in no way and at no time divided by difference of purpose or will."
Nestorius rejected the Alexandrian unity "according to nature," "substantial" or "hypostatic" unity. Occasionally refers to the henôsis or unity of the natures, his referred term is "conjunction" - "sunapheia" - strengthened with qualifiers such as "perfect" or "continuous." Since the "conjunction" is perfect and continuous, the two natures were conjoined in one "prosopon."
"Being in the form of God I am clothed in the form of a servant; although I am God the Logos, I am visible in the flesh; although I have rule over all things I take upon myself the prosopon of the poor for your sake; although I am visibly hungry, I give food to those who hunger."
The "mutual interpenetration" of the prosopa: "the incarnation is conceived of as the mutual use of the prosopa, by taking and giving." The consequence is the one, single prosopon of Christ.
iii. From Ephesus to Chalcedon
22nd June 431, Cyril arrived in Ephesus with his suffragans.
The Syrian party was late. Cyril went ahead, the Alexandrians
met in synod, condemned then excommunicated Nestorius. Four days
later, the Antiochenes arrived, met in synod and excommunicated
Cyril together with his supporter, Memnon, the bishop of Ephesus.
Having also arrived, representatives the West sided with Cyril.
The situation was referred to the Emperor who ratified the excommunications
of all three ecclesiastics, Cyril, Memnon, and Nestorius and had
put in custody. Cyril bribed his way out, Nestorius retired to
his monastery. In 433 a doctrinal agreement was drafted by Theodoret
of Cyrrhus which established a temporary peace between the rival
traditions.
Chrysaphius, Theodosius' influential court eunuch, in concert
with Dioscorus, Cyril's successor in Alexandria, and his godfather
Eutyches, contrived a scheme to end the peace of 433, condemn
the Antiochene theology, and impose Cyril's "Twelve Anathemas"
as the measure of orthodoxy.
Eutyches made the deliberately controversial gesture of condemning all those who said that there were "two natures after the union." The patriarch of Constantinople, Flavian, who had earned himself the enmity of Chrysaphius, had Eutyches condemned as an Apollinarian. Then, in August 449, the Emperor called another council at Ephesus.
Pope Leo sent legates to the Council of Ephesus as well as a doctrinal statement addressed to Flavian, known as the "Tome of Leo to Flavian." The Council of Ephesus, however, was under the control of Dioscorus who managed to secure the condemnation of Flavian, the rehabilitation of Eutyches, and the deposition of leading Antiochenes including Theodoret of Cyrrhus. The following year, however, Chrysaphius was toppled from power by Pulcheria. This left Pulcheria with the freedom to ally the Emperor's policy with Pope Leo who was furious with the events at Ephesus. Following the death of Theodosius in a riding accident, Pulcheria took command, marrying the new emperor Marcion, and executing Chrysaphius. A council was summoned to meet at Chalcedon in 451.
The Council of Chalcedon reversed the decisions of Ephesus. The moderate Antiochenes, Theodoret and Ibas of Edessa, were restored; Nestorius was condemned. Pope Leo's "Tome" was approved by the Council as orthodox. Dioscorus was deposed and Eutyches condemned. The Council also approved a Christological formulary, the "Chalcedonian Definition."
Dioscorus (d.454), patriarch of Alexandria from 444. Deposed and banished to Paphlagonia at the third session of the Council of Chalcedon. He is held to be a saint by the Coptic Church.
Flavian (d.449), patriarch of Constantinople from 446. Received vicious treatment after his condemnation at Ephesus (the "Robber" Council controlled by Dioscorus, see above) and died shortly after. He was celebrated as a martyr at the Council of Chalcedon.
Eutyches (c.378-454), archimandrite of a monastery in Constantinople (for relationship with Dioscorus, etc., see above).
2. Cyril of Alexandria: "One Nature, and that Incarnate, of the Divine Word"
"If anyone presumes to say that 'the man who was assumed is to be worshipped together with the Divine Word'..., let him be anathema," 8th anathema.
"God the Logos did not come into a man, but he "truly" became man, while remaining God."
"The single, unique Christ, out of two different natures." "One out of two."
"Hypostatic union."
"There is one nature, and that incarnate, of the divine Word."
"He who says that the Lord suffered only in the flesh [i.e. not in the soul] makes the suffering irrational and not endured by the will."
"The mystery was accomplished noiselessly. Therefore in accordance with the economy [order of salvation], He permitted the measures of the manhood to prevail over Himself."
"God suffered impassibly."
"It is not that the Logos of God suffered in his own nature, being overcome by stripes or nail-piercing or any of the other injuries; for the divine, since it is incorporeal, is impassible. Since, however, the body that had become his own underwent suffering, he is... said to have suffered these things for our sakes, for the impassible One was within the suffering body."