The Legacy of Chalcedon (451-681)
1. Introduction: "The Ruling City"
St. Daniel the Stylite (409- 93), Byzantine ascetic and disciple of St. Simon the Stylite. Left his monastery and, at around the age of 42, took up his place on a pillar four miles outside Constantinople. Daniel became a focus for prayer, healings, and visitation and a source of considerable political influence. He left his pillar only once, to support the Patriarch Acacius against the pro-Monophysite policy of the usurping Emperor Basiliscus (c. 476).
2. Opposing Chalcedon
a. The Chalcedonian Definition
b. Conflict in Egypt
Eutyches (c.384-c.456), archimandrite at Constantinople. Taught that, after the incarnation, the humanity of Christ was merged in the divinity to constitute "one nature." The formula, however, "one nature after the incarnation" was capable of a non-Eutychean interpretation.
Dioscoros (?-454), Patriarch of Alexandria from 444. Supported Eutyches at the second Council of Ephesus in 449 (the so-called "Robber Council" or Latrocinium) where he deposed Flavian, the bishop of Constantinople. His actions were condemned at the Council of Chalcedon and Dioscorus was excommunicated and banished.
Marcian (396-457), Eastern Emperor from 450. Marcian insisted on the imposition of the Chalcedonian formula within the Empire.
Leo I, Eastern Emperor from 457 to 474. On his accession, he was faced with popular rebellion in Egypt. Angered by the deposition of Dioscoros the Egyptians rejected the rule of Dioscoros' Chalcedonian successor, Proterius whom they murdered in 457 and replaced with Timothy Aelurus - "the Cat." When peaceful negotiation failed, Leo I sent in the troops. Timothy the Cat was exiled and some 10,000 protesters were killed.
Timothy Salafaciolus ("Wobble Cap" or, perhaps, "White Turban"), patriarch of Alexandria after the deposition of Timothy Aelurus in 460. A moderate supporter of Chalcedon, he failed to gain support owing to his identification as a "Melkite" or "Emperor's man."
Zeno (450?-91), Eastern Emperor from 474 though temporarily deoposed by the usurper Basiliscus. Basiliscus support for the Monophysite cause in Egypt provoked Zeno's attempt at a reconciliation after his return to the throne. This initiative, inspired by the Patriach of Constantinople, Acacius (471- 89), took the form of a letter from Zeno, known as the Henotikon or "instrument of unity." The letter reaffirmed the condemnation of Eutyches and Nestorius and attempted to restore unity on the basis of Nicea, Constantinople, and Ephesus I. It had only temporary success and provoked a short schism between Constantinople and the Papacy (482-519). Acacius was excommunicated by Pope Felix III in 484.
c. The Religious Issues
"Monophysite" opposition to Chalcedon: focused on the Chalcedonian formulation "in two natures." Monophysites wished a reaffirmation of the Cyrillian "one nature incarnate of God the Word." This was not a return to Eutyches, although more extreme Monophysite theologies did develop in that direction.
Antiochene interpreters of Chalcedon: Gennadius, Patriarch of Constantinople (458-71) and Theodoret of Cyrrhus.
Hypostasis; prosopon; nature (phusis).
3. The Establishment of Division
John the Grammarian and Leontius of Jerusalem: C6th interpreters of Chalcedon ("neo-Chalcedonianism") not Antiochene but Cyrillian in emphasis.
Justinian I (482-565), Byzantine Emperor.
Timothy IV, Monophysite Patriarch of Alexandria from 518.
Severus, Patriach of Antioch from 512. Immensely popular amongst the Syrian-speaking areas to the east, his Monophysite teaching, especially his attacks on Pope Leo's Tome, caused bitter offence in western Syria where the countryside was under the sway of the Greek cities. In 518, Severus was deposed and he fled into exile in Alexandria from which he continued to encourage his followers, eventually agreeing to the provision of a Monophysite hierarchy for the Church in Syria.
Pope Hormisdas (papacy, 514- 23), opponent of Severus and supporter of Chalcedonianism in Syria.
Monophysite missions: from Egypt into Ethiopia and Nubia (Nobatia); from Southern Syria to the Ghassinid Arabs and, in the person of Jacob Baradaeus, through Syria, Asia Minor, Armenia, and the Aegean Islands.
Religious divisions of the Byzantine Empire at the end of the C6th:
1. The Alexandrian tradition that maintained the theology of Cyril predominated in the form of Monophysite churches from N. Syria to the Euphrates as well in Egypt. Beyond the Empire, Monophysite Christianity was established in Armenia and Nubia.
2. Byzantine orthodoxy, affirming the Council of Chalcedon was firmly established in Palestine, Asia Minor, and the Greek speaking provinces in Europe.
3. The Nestorian tradition persisted outside the Empire within the borders of Persia.